Introduction

Agriculture + fisheries + livestock + forests contribute 13.9% to India’s GDP. India’s 51% population dependent on these activities.

Green Revolution in India

• • Green Revolution is a term coined to describe the emergence and diffusion of new seeds of cereals. Norman Burlaug is the Father of the Green Revolution in the world, while Dr. M.S. Swaminathan is known as the Father of the Green Revolution in India.

• • Some experts in agriculture use it for referring to a broad transformation of the agricultural sector in the developing countries to reduce food shortages. Others use it when referring to the specific plant improvements, notably the development of HYV s.

• • The diffusion of HYVs, however, became fully operational in the Country in the Kharif season of 1965-66. The diffusion of the new seeds was mainly in the Satluj-Ganga Plains and the Kaveri Delta. Subsequently, a number of varieties of wheat and rice were developed by the Indian scientists and adopted by the Indian farmers.

Merits of the High Yielding Varieties

• • Shorter Life Cycle: This enabled the farmers to go for multiple cropping.

• • Economize on Irrigation Water: Though the HYV need more water ut the returns they fetch on the water that is utilized are far better than traditional varieties.

• • Generate more Employment: The High Yielding Varieties under optimal conditions require more labor per unit area and thus, help in generating more employment.

• • The High Yielding Varieties are Scale Neutral: One of the main advantages of the High Yielding Varieties is that they benefit a category of farmers in the same proportion. In other words, the new seeds are not biased towards the big and the small farmers.

• • Easy to Adopt: The adoption of High Yielding Varieties does not require any special skill for adoption. The farmers of different socio-economic and cultural backgrounds can adopt the new seeds without any difficulty

However, the benefits come with their own disadvantages too. The farmers need to invest in chemical fertilizers, pesticides, mechanized equipment, irrigation facilities, and storage and they should also possess capital for all these factors. The availability of quality extension services like trained personnel to help the farmers during the harvest seasons etc too makes a difference.

The adoption of High Yielding Varieties has created intra-regional inequalities also. All the farmers, even in the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, and Kaveri Delta have not benefited equally. It is the large, progressive, and educated farmers who gained much from the High Yielding Varieties. The early adopters reaped many dividends from the new seeds. By the time the majority came to adopt the new seeds, income gains realized by the early adopters generally disappeared. The average, small and marginal farmers could not gain much, while the late adopters gained almost nothing. Thus, the High Yielding Varieties have had a discriminatory impact in which the large and early adopters benefited and the small and marginal farmers who adopted these seeds late could not achieve much.

The production and productivity of wheat, rice, maize, and Bajra have gone up. There are, however, several kinds of cereal and cash crops (pulses, small millets, barley, oilseeds) that are not performing satisfactorily. It is in the case of Kharif pulses where the performance needs much improvement. The development of High Yielding Varieties of pulses for each of the agro-climatic regions is the pressing need of the day.

SECOND GREEN REVOLUTION

• • The overall production of the cereal and non-cereal crops has reached almost the plateau stage. The growth rate of the agricultural sector is only about two percent. Looking at the growing demand for agricultural produce, there is an urgent need for undertaking agriculture to a higher trajectory of a four percent annual growth rate.

• • This can be done with the Second Green Revolution which could focus on areas like:

• • • To raise agricultural productivity to promote food security

• • • More emphasis on biotechnology

• • • To promote sustainable agriculture

• • • To become self-sufficient in staple food, pulses, oilseeds, and industrial raw material

• • • To increase the per capita income of the farmers and to raise their standard of living.

DRY FARMING

• • The spread of dry farming is in the regions where the average annual rainfall is less than 75 cm and irrigation facilities are not available. About 60% of the net-cultivated area is under dryland and rainfed cultivation in India, which contributes 40% of the total agricultural production.

• • Agriculture in the dry farming regions belongs to a fragile, high risking, and low-productive agricultural ecosystem. The areas in which more than 75 cm of average annual rainfall is recorded are known as the areas of rain-fed agriculture

• • In India, drylands cover about 32 million hectares or about 60 percent of the net arable land.

• • These areas having scanty rainfall and high variability of rainfall are adversely affected by erratic precipitation, frequent droughts, high temperature, and high wind velocity resulting in soil erosion.

Significant Features of Dry Farming

• • Moisture conservation is basic to dry farming. In order to achieve this objective, the field is ploughed repeatedly, especially during the rainy season

• • Sowing of crops in alternate years. or fallowing of land after each harvesting of the crop. The following of agricultural land helps in the recuperation of soil fertility.

• • Pulverisation of the soil before sowing.

• • Regular hoeing and weeding of the crop to control weed growth and! conserve moisture. Hoeing is generally done before sun-rise so that the night dew may be mixed into the soil to provide moisture to the crops

• • Covering the land with straw to prevent evaporation of the soil moisture and to control soil erosion.

• • Livestock keeping and dairying are also important allied agricultural activities in the dry farming regions,

Strategy for Development

• • In dry farming areas, water harvesting should be done. The government and other non-government agencies should provide the necessary guidance to the people. Seeds of food crops that are drought resistant should be provided to the farmers at a subsidized rate. Efforts should be made to check soil erosion by adopting soil conservation practices,

• • The farmers should space their crops at a wide gap and there should be regular weeding and hoeing. Seeds of the quick and short duration maturing crops should be developed. Cultivation of crops requiring more moisture should be done in the low-lying areas, especially in the lower parts of the catchment.

• • In addition to these, there are many other practices like contour-plowing, contour-bunding, and field-bunding that help water conservation measures, Practice like mulching prevents evaporation from the soil. Deep placement of manures and fertilizers would help the roots to penetrate deep layers. This, along-with weed control will help in increasing the yield. The latest advanced technology of dry farming is to lay stress on soil moisture and its conservation.

• • It should be noted that in the dry areas, soils suffer from nutrient deficiency, particularly nitrogen. Band placement of fertilizers in sub-soil layers is a good method of helping the roots to go deep for exploiting the conserved moisture.

CROPPING PATTERNS

• • A cropping pattern means the proportion of area under different crops at a given point in time.

• • The cropping patterns of a region are closely influenced by geo-climatic, socioeconomic, and political factors. In any region, the prevalent cropping patterns are the cumulative results of the past and present decisions of individuals, communities, or government and their agencies. These decisions are usually based on experience, tradition, expected profit, personal preferences, and resources, social and political pressure.

• • In addition to the physical environment, the land ownership, the land tenancy, land tenure, size of holding, and fields also influence the cropping patterns. A farmer with a smallholding prefers the cultivation of labor-intensive crops, while a large holding farmer goes for the capital-intensive agricultural practices.

• • The relative yield index and the relative spread index for the determination of the suitability of the crop may be calculated with the help of the following formula:

• • • Relative Yield Index = (Mean yield of the crop in a component areal unit) * 100 / (Mean yield of the total area)

• • • Relative Spread Index = (Area of the crop expressed as a percentage of the total cultivated area in the areal unit) x 100 / (Area of the crop expressed as a percentage of the total cultivated area)

CROP CONCENTRATION

• • Crop concentration means the variation in the density of any crop in a region at a given point in time.

• • The concentration of crops in an area largely depends on the terrain, climate, soils, and agricultural practices of the farmers. Each crop has a maximum, minimum, and optimal temperature. The crops have a tendency to have a high concentration in the areas of ideal agro-climatic conditions and the density declines as the geographical conditions become less conducive.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY

• • Agricultural productivity is a synonym for agricultural efficiency. The yield per unit area is known as agricultural productivity. Agricultural productivity is generally the result of physical, socioeconomic, and cultural factors.

• • High Agricultural Productivity: High agricultural productivity is found in the Satluj-Ganga Plain, the Brahmaputra Valley, and the delta regions of the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers. In these areas either the irrigation facilities are well developed or there is the adequacy of rainfall over the greater part of the year. Wheat, rice, maize, pulses, sugarcane, and oilseeds are the main crops grown in the high agricultural productivity regions. The farmers, especially that of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh are no longer subsistent as most of them are doing agriculture as agri-business.

• • Medium Agricultural Productivity: The agriculture in these regions is mainly subsistent. Non-availability of irrigation is a major barrier to the enhancement of agricultural productivity.

• • Low Agricultural Productivity: These areas are deficient in irrigation and characterized by low rainfall conditions. In fact, most of these areas are susceptible to droughts or floods and are the less rainfall recording areas. The intensification of agriculture in these states is low. Agriculture is mainly rain-fed and practiced to meet family requirements. It is in these areas where the agrarian community is generally at a low level of subsistence and many of them are committing suicides.

AGRICULTURAL INTENSITY

• • Cropping intensity has been defined as the ratio between the net sown area and the gross or total cropped area.

• • The agricultural intensity depends on geo-climatic, pedological, socio-cultural, and infrastructural factors. Thus, the agricultural intensity is generally high in the well-irrigated alluvial plains like Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. Contrary to this, the agricultural intensity is low in the less rainfall recording areas.

• • Agricultural intensity = Gross (cropped) area * 100 / Net cultivated area.

CROP COMBINATIONS

• • Crops are generally grown in combinations and it is rarely that a particular crop occupies a position of total isolation.

• • The study of crop combinations constitutes an important aspect of agricultural geography. In fact, it provides a good basis for agricultural regionalization and helps in the formulation of a strategy for agricultural development.

Features of Indian agriculture:

1. Subsistence agriculture
2. Low productivity
3. Rainfed
4. Food crop dominant
5. Low agriculture investments.
6. Poor forward and backward linkages. Underdeveloped food processing. Low agriculture mechanization.

Agriculture Performance Ratios:

• Agriculture efficiency:- Agriculture output / Agriculture input
• Agriculture productivity = weight / area
  
• In the Indian agriculture system, the high productivity areas are those where cheap labor, good rainfall, and fertile land are available e.g. Lower Ganga plains, the east coast.
  
• High productivity areas are those where good investment in input, machinery, and High yielding seeds are available like Punjab, Haryana, and Kashmir.

Agriculture Productivity issues and solutions:

To improve productivity:

• Seeds
• Nutrition
• Judicious use of chemical fertilizers
• Use of organic fertilizers
• Irrigation
• Finance
• Water use efficiency
• Rainwater harvesting
• Watershed management
• Modernization
•  Modernization should be aimed at post-harvest [storage, food processing] not at pre-harvest [sowing, weeding] else would lead to job loss.

Major crops of India:

1. Kharif – monsoon season; all except rabi crops
2. Rabi – winter season; wheat, gram, linseed, gram, pea, and mustard.
3. Zaid – dry summer; vegetables and fruits.

Rice:

The highest area under rice in the world. Water intensive and major staple food.

Wheat:

Productivity highest amongst crops in India. Not water-intensive.

Pulses: 

Due to the high MSP on rice and wheat, the production of pulses declined. But due to high demand, the import dependence increased.

To encourage pulses cultivation the Rajiv Krishi Vikas yojana and national food security mission have included pulses.

Millets:

These crops need less rainfall but are grown as fodder crops or for subsistence farming.

Jawar:

It is a Kharif and rabi crop. Suitable for dryland or rainfed areas. Third most important crop after rice and wheat.

Cotton:

Dry crop so not much water needed. Highly water-retentive black cotton soil is most suitable for growth. Maharashtra and the Kaveri basin are famous for cotton.

Textiles:

1. One of the most important industries is self-sufficiency. Labor intensive with backward linkages with agriculture.
2. Maharashtra is known for cotton due to the black cotton soil on the Deccan plateau. Financial requirements are met by Parsis and Gujaratis.
3. Cheap labor from surrounding areas.
4. Mumbai was an agglomeration so inertia. Also ports for exports.

Sugarcane:

Tropical sugarcane areas are the northern plains. Subtropical variety has low sugar content. Sugar factories shut in winter. From the northern plains, the factories shifted to Punjab, Haryana, South India, and Western India.

Western India sugarcane is an important crop because:

1. Temperature is moderate due to the sea which is favorable for sugarcane.
2. Skilled labor is needed and western and South India have a strong cooperative movement
3. Sugar from tropical varieties has high sugar content.

Oilseeds:

Demand is high but production has dropped due to farmers not preferring oilseeds over rice and wheat. Reasons are high gestation period, low R&D in this sector, low MSP than rice and wheat, and preference of consumers for palm and soyabean oil as they are cheaper.

The government started Yellow Revolution to promote oilseeds cultivation.

Tea:

Tea needs high rainfall but can’t tolerate waterlogging. It needs a cool temperature in the morning. High labor requirements as mechanization aren’t possible. It’s Preferably grown on mountain slopes. Darjeeling is famous for tea due to cheap labor, proximity to ports, sloping land, heavy rainfall, and cool temperature.

Jute:

It grows in high rainfall and humid areas as its water-intensive. Initially was the highest foreign exchange earner for India but demand declined abroad as the synthetic variety was developed. However, jute is more ecological and safe. Hence the promotion of jute-based products is needed.

Spices:

India has been famous for spices since ancient times. The hot, humid climate is suitable. Spices also need heavy rainfall and laterite soil. These conditions are found in western ghats.

Government Program:

• Seed Mission:
• It was started by the 12^th plan by the ministry of agriculture.
• Objectives:
•     1.    To enhance seed replacement rate.
•     2.    Upgrade the quality of farm seed saved.
•     3.    Increase reserves of quality seeds at regional levels to meet requirements during calamities.
•     4.    Upgrade PSU seed-producing agencies.

Swaminathan Report: National Commission on Farmers (2006)

• • Chaired by – Prof M S Swaminathan

• • The NCF is mandated to make suggestions on issues such as:
  • To a medium-term strategy for food and nutrition security to move towards the goal of universal food security over time; protect farmer’s interests; increase productivity and rural credit;

• • The NCF recommends that “Agriculture” be inserted in the Concurrent List of the Constitution.

• • The major causes of the agrarian crisis are:
  • Unfinished agenda in land reform, quantity, quality of water, technology fatigue, access, adequacy, and timeliness of institutional.
  • Credit opportunities for assured and remunerative marketing.
  • Adverse meteorological factors.

• • Distribute ceiling surplus and wastelands; Prevent diversion of prime agricultural land and forest to the corporate sector for non-agricultural purposes. Ensure grazing rights and seasonal access to forests to tribals and pastoralists, and access to common property resources.

• • Establish a National Land Use Advisory Service, which would have the capacity to link land-use decisions with ecological meteorological, and marketing factors on a location and season specific basis.

• • Set up a mechanism to regulate the sale of agricultural land, based on the quantum of land, nature of proposed use, and category of buyer.

• • MSP should be at least 50% more than the weighted average cost of production.

• • State Agriculture Produce Marketing Committee Acts [APMC Acts] relating to marketing, storage, and processing of agriculture produce need to shift to one that promotes grading, branding, packaging, and development of domestic and international markets for local produce, and move toward a Single Indian Market.

• • Conserving, enhancing, and improving crops and farm animals as well as fish stocks through breeding;

• • Encouraging community-based breed conservation (i.e. conservation through use);

• • Allowing export of indigenous breeds and import of suitable breeds to increase the productivity of nondescript animals.